Basic Economic Problems 基本经济问题

1. Economics 经济学

Economics 经济学

A social science that studies the behavior and interactions of economic agents (e.g. households, firms, governments, etc.) and how the economy works. 经济学是一门研究经济主体(如家庭、企业、政府等)的行为与互动,以及经济体系运作方式的社会科学。
2. Microeconomics and Macroeconomics 微观经济学与宏观经济学
Microeconomics and Macroeconomics 微观经济学与宏观经济学


Microeconomics is the study of the choices that individuals and firms make, the way these choices interact, and the outcome of their interaction 微观经济学研究个人和企业做出的选择、这些选择相互作用的方式,以及相互作用所产生的结果。

E.g. How will a decline in demand on air travel affect the producers of airplanes? 例如:航空旅行需求下降会如何影响飞机制造商?
Macroeconomics is the study of behavior of the national economy as a whole and the issues affecting it 宏观经济学研究国民经济整体的运行状况,以及影响国民经济的相关问题。

e.g. Will a tax cut increase the number of jobs and total production of a country? 例如:减税会增加一个国家的就业岗位数量和总产出吗?

3. Positive and Normative Statements 实证陈述与规范陈述

Positive and Normative Statements 实证表述与规范表述
Positive Statement:(肯定陈述)
Positive Statement 肯定陈述

Positive statements are about what is in the economic description 实证表述是对经济现象"是什么"的客观描述。

A positive statements are objective and can be false after testing. 实证陈述是客观的,且经过检验后可能被证明为假。

Examples of positive statement: 实证陈述的例子:

“The unemployment rate in Hong Kong in the 1st quarter of 2017 was 3%” 2017年第一季度香港的失业率为3%。

“Our planet is warming because of the carbon dioxide emissions.”由于二氧化碳的排放,我们的星球正在变暖。
Normative Statement:(主观陈述)
Normative Statement主观陈述:


Economic opinions or judgments are expressed in normative statements. 经济方面的意见或判断是透过规范陈述来表达的。

Normative statements are subjective, and one may agree or disagree with these statements 规范陈述是主观的,人们可以同意或不同意这些陈述。
Example of normative statement 规范陈述的例子:
“A command economy is more efficient than a market economy.”指令经济比市场经济更有效率。

4. Economic Problems 经济问题

Economic Problems 经济问题
Unlimited human wants 人類無限的慾望


Limited (scarce) resources 有限的(稀缺的)资源
Scarcity arising from insufficient of resources to satisfy all wants 由于资源不足以满足所有欲望而产生的稀缺性


Human has to make choices - meaning that we have to give up something 人类必须做出选择——这意味着我们不得不放弃某些东西。
Cost: Opportunity Cost 成本:机会成本

5. Opportunity Cost and Economizing 机会成本与节约

Opportunity Cost and Economizing 机会成本与节约
Opportunity cost 机会成本

Opportunity cost 机会成本
the real cost of satisfying a want 满足一个欲望的真实成本


measured in terms of the best alternative want given up (i.e. the best alternative foregone) 以所放弃的最佳替代欲望(即被放弃的最佳替代选择)来衡量。
To make the best use of scarce resources in satisfying wants, human beings aim at economizing 为了在满足欲望时最有效地利用稀缺资源,人类力求节约。

6.Scarcity and Choice 稀缺和选择
Scarcity and Choice 稀缺和选择


Fundamental economic problems arising from scarcity由稀缺性引起的基本经济问题:
What to produce? 制造哪类产品?

How to produce? 如何制造该类产品?

For whom to produce? 为谁制造该类产品?

Extended economic problems 延伸经济问题:

Extended economic problems 延伸经济问题:
What quantities to produce? 制造数量

When to produce ? 何时制造

Where to produce? 哪𥚃制造?

7. Decision-makers in Economy 经济中的决策者

Decision-makers in Economy 经济中的决策者
Households 家庭:Make consumption decisions 做出消费决策


Firms企业: Use resources to produce and make production decisions 利用资源进行生产,并做出生产决策。
Government政府: Keep law and order 保持法律和秩序,Provides essential public services 提供必须的公营服务

8. Types of Market 市场类型
Goods Market 商品市场

In this market, final goods and services are transferred. 在这个市场中,最终商品和服务被进行转移(交易)。


Factors Market 生产要素市场

In this market, services of factor of production ( i.e. land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship) are hired. 在这个市场中,生产要素所提供的服务(即土地、劳动、资本和企业家才能)被雇用。
Circular Flows Through Markets 通过市场的循环流动
Circular Flows Through Markets 通过市场的循环流动


Households and firms interact in the goods and factors market. 家庭与企业在商品市场和生产要素市场中互动。
Factors of production and goods and services flow in one direction. 生产要素与商品和服务朝一个方向流动。


And money flows in the opposite direction. 而货币则朝相反的方向流动。
9. Economic Systems 经济体制
Economic Systems 经济体制


Market Economy 市场经济

answers ‘what’, ‘how’ and ‘ for whom ‘ to produce through price mechanism 通过价格机制来解答「生产什么」、「如何生产」以及「为谁生产」的问题。

coordinates competing users through price mechanism 通过价格机制协调竞争性的使用者

users paying highest prices have wants satisfied first 支付最高价格的使用者,其需求会优先得到满足。
Command Economy/ Planned Economy 计划经济

determines ‘what’, ‘how’ and ‘for whom’ to produce through government command 通过政府指令来决定「生产什么」、「如何生产」以及「为谁生产」。


Mixed Economy 混合经济

uses both price mechanism and command to answer ‘what’, ‘how’ and ‘for whom’ to produce 同时运用价格机制和政府指令来决定「生产什么」、「如何生产」以及「为谁生产」。
10. Economic System in China

China adopted a planned economy during 1950’s and 1960’s 中国在20世纪50年代和60年代实行了计划经济。

In 1970’s, she opened to the world and gradually became a mixed economy - Socialist market economy 在20世纪70年代,中国对外开放,并逐渐转变为一个混合经济体——即社会主义市场经济。
11. Production Possibilities Frontier (PPF) 生产可能性曲线
Production Possibilities Frontier (PPF) 生产可能性曲线

Production is the employment of land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship resources to provide goods and services. 生产是指雇用土地、劳动、资本和企业家才能等资源,以提供商品和服务的活动。

Two kind of goods 两种商品:

Capital goods are goods used in production process ( i.e. to provide further outputs). 资本财是用于生产过程中的物品(即用以提供进一步的产出)。
Consumption goods are final products to satisfy consumer’s wants. 消费品是用来满足消费者欲望的最终产品。

Assumptions假设:

At given resources & technology 在给定的资源和技术条件下

Only 2 consumption goods, say clothes and bread, are produced 只生产两种消费品,比如说衣服和面包。
A curve boundary 一条曲线边界

Joining different combinations of 2 goods/ services 连接两种商品/服务的不同组合

With all resources fully & efficiently employed 在所有资源都被充分且有效利用的情况下

Shape: bows outwards/ concave 形状:向外弯曲 / 凹形

Opportunity cost (i.e. we can produce more of a good only if we produce fewer the other) 机会成本(即我们只有减少另一种物品的生产,才能增加某一种物品的产量)。

Increasing opportunity cost (along the curve) 递增的机会成本(沿着曲线)



The figure shows the PPF for clothes and bread, which stand for any pair of goods and services 该图显示了衣服和面包的生产可能性边界(PPF),它们代表任意一对商品或服务。
Attainable & Unattainable Zones 可达到的与不可达到的区域
Attainable & Unattainable Zones 可达到的与不可达到的区域


Points inside and on the PPF, e.g. A, B, and Y, are attainable 位于生产可能性边界(PPF)内部或曲线上的点,例如 A、B 和 Y,都是可以实现的。

Points outside the PPF, e.g. W, are unattainable (i.e. combinations cannot be made because of limited resources) 位于生产可能性边界(PPF)外部的点,例如 W,是不可实现的(即由于资源有限,这些组合无法被生产出来)。

Production Efficiency 生产效率

Production Efficiency 生产效率

We achieve production efficiency if we cannot produce more of one good without producing less of some other goods 如果我们无法在不减少其他商品产量的情况下,增加某一种商品的产量,那么就实现了生产效率。

Points on the PPF, i.e. A and B , are efficient 生产可能性边界(PPF)上的点,即 A 和 B,是有效率的。

Production Inefficiency 生产无效率

Production Inefficiency 生产无效率

Any point inside the PPF, i.e. Y, is inefficient 生产可能性边界(PPF)内部的任何一点,即 Y,都是无效率的。

At such a point, it is possible to produce more of one good without producing less of the other good 在这样的一点上,可以在不减少另一种商品产量的情况下,增加某一种商品的产量。

At Y, resources are either unemployed or misallocated 在 Y 点,资源要么处于闲置状态,要么配置不当。

Tradeoff Along the PPF 沿着生产可能性边界(PPF)的权衡取舍

Tradeoff Along the PPF 沿着生产可能性边界(PPF)的权衡取舍
Every choice of combination of goods along the PPF involves a tradeoff 在生产可能性边界(PPF)上,对商品组合的每一个选择都涉及权衡取舍。

On this PPF, we must give up some clothes to get more bread or give up some bread to get more clothes. 在这条生产可能性边界(PPF)上,我们必须放弃一些衣服才能获得更多的面包,或者放弃一些面包才能获得更多的衣服。

Opportunity Cost 机会成本

Opportunity Cost 机会成本

If we move from C to B, we increases clothes production by 1 million 如果我们从 C 点移动到 B 点,衣服的产量就会增加 100 万(单位)。

bread production decreases from 6 million to 4 million ➡️ a decrease of 2 million 面包的产量从 600 万下降到 400 万 ➡️ 减少了 200 万(单位)。

Hence, the opportunity cost of producing an extra 1 million clothes is 2 million bread (or 1 clothes costs 2 bread) 因此,多生产 100 万件衣服的机会成本是 200 万个面包(或者说,1 件衣服的成本是 2 个面包)。



On the other hand, if we move from B to C, we increase bread production by 2 million 另一方面,如果我们从 B 点移动到 C 点,面包的产量就会增加 200 万(单位)。
Clothes production decreases from 14 million to 13 million ➡️ a decrease of 1 million 衣服产量从 1400 万下降到 1300 万 ➡️ 减少了 100 万(单位)。

Hence, the opportunity cost of producing an extra 2 million bread is 1 million clothes ( or 1 bread costs 0.5 clothes) 因此,多生产 200 万个面包的机会成本是 100 万件衣服(或者说,1 个面包的成本是 0.5 件衣服)。


We can see that the opportunity cost of bread is the inverse of the opportunity cost of clothes 我们可以看到,面包的机会成本是衣服机会成本的倒数:
1 clothes costs 2 bread . 1件衣服的成本是2個麵包。

1 bread costs 0.5 clothes. 1個麵包的成本是0.5件衣服。

Because resources are not all equally productive in all activities, the PPF bows outward - i.e. concave to the origin. 因为资源在不同生产活动中的生产效率并不完全相同,所以生产可能性边界(PPF)向外弯曲——即凹向原点。


The outward bow of the PPF means that as the quantity product of each good increases, so does its opportunity cost. 生产可能性边界(PPF)向外弯曲的形状意味着,随着每种商品产量的增加,其机会成本也会随之上升。
As we move along the PPF, the opportunity cost of producing a good increases. 当我们沿着生产可能性边界(PPF)移动时,生产一种商品的机会成本会增加。

Economic Growth 经济增长
Economic Growth 经济增长


Economic growth means expansion of production possibilities causes of economic growth 经济增长意味着生产可能性的扩张。经济增长的原因:
Capital Accumulation: Growth of capital resources 资本积累:资本资源的增长


Technological Progress: Development of new and better way of producing goods and services 技术进步:开发出新的、更好的生产商品与服务的方法。
International Trade : Countries share benefits arising from economic growth 国际贸易:各国分享经济增长带来的收益。

Outward Shift of PPF under Economic Growth 经济增长下的生产可能性边界(PPF)外移

Outward Shift of PPF under Economic Growth 经济增长下的生产可能性边界(PPF)外移

By using some resources to accumulate capital goods (e.g. bread ovens) today, the PPF shifts outward in the future. 通过今天使用部分资源来积累资本财(例如烤面包的烤箱),生产可能性边界(PPF)在未来就会向外移动。
